Cereal Straw as a Resource for Sustainable Biomaterials and Biofuels

Materials from renewable resources are receiving increased attention, as leading industries and manufacturers attempt to replace declining petrochemical-based feedstocks with products derived from natural biomass, such as cereal straws. Cereal straws are expected to play an important role in the shift toward a sustainable economy, and a basic knowledge of the composition and structure of cereal straw is the key to using it wisely.
Cereal Straw as a Resource for Sustainable Biomaterials and Biofuels: Chemistry, Extractives, Lignins, Hemicelluloses and Cellulose provides an introduction to straw chemistry. Topics discussed include the structure, ultrastructure, and chemical composition of straw; the structure and isolation of extractives from the straw; the three main components of straw: cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignins; and chemical modifications of straw for industrial applications.
This book will be helpful to scientists interested in the areas of natural resource management, environmental chemistry, plant chemistry, material science, polysaccharide chemistry, and lignin chemistry. It will also be of interest to academic and industrial scientists/researchers interested in novel applications of agricultural residues for industrial and/or recycling technologies.

• Provides the basics of straw composition and the structure of its cell walls

• Details the procedures required to fractionate straw components to produce chemical derivatives from straw cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignins

• Elucidates new techniques for the production of biodegradable materials for the energy sector, chemical industry, and pulp and paper business

1;Front Cover ;1 2;Half Title Page ;2 3;Title Page ;4 4;Copyright Page;5 5;Table of Contents ;6 6;Preface ;10 7;Chapter 1 Introduction;12 7.1;References;16 8;Chapter 2 Structure, Ultrastructure, and Chemical Composition;20 8.1;2.1 Anatomical Structure;20 8.2;2.2 Ultrastructure;21 8.2.1;2.2.1 Ultrastructure of Wood;21 8.2.2;2.2.2 Ultrastructure of Grass;26 8.3;2.3 Distribution of Polysaccharides and Lignin;29 8.3.1;2.3.1 Polysaccharides Distribution;29 8.3.2;2.3.2 Lignin Distribution;32 8.4;2.4 Chemical Composition;40 8.4.1;2.4.1 Cellulose;42 8.4.2;2.4.2 Hemicelluloses;45 8.4.3;2.4.3 Lignin;48 8.4.4;2.4.4 Pectic Substances;50 8.4.5;2.4.5 Proteins;51 8.4.6;2.4.6 Cutins, Suberins, Waxes and Other Extracts;51 8.4.7;2.4.7 Ash;54 8.5;References;54 9;Chapter 3 Extractives;60 9.1;3.1 Isolation and Purification;61 9.1.1;3.1.1 Procedures for Isolation of Extractives;61 9.1.2;3.1.2 Purification of Extractives;62 9.2;3.2 Structural Characterization;63 9.2.1;3.2.1 Chemical Composition of Extractives;63 9.2.2;3.2.2 Spectroscopic and Thermal Characterization;73 9.3;References ;81 10;Chapter 4 Hemicelluloses;84 10.1;4.1 Introduction;84 10.2;4.2 Occurrence, Nature, and Classification;84 10.2.1;4.2.1 Occurrence, Nature, and Classification of Hemicelluloses ;85 10.2.2;4.2.2 Occurrence, Nature, and Classification of Straw Hemicelluloses ;87 10.3;4.3 Isolation, Analysis, and Structure ;88 10.3.1;4.3.1 Isolation;88 10.3.2;4.3.2 Structural Analysis of Straw Hemicelluloses;96 10.3.3;4.3.3 Structure;100 10.4;4.4 Physicochemical Properties;107 10.4.1;4.4.1 Solubility;107 10.4.2;4.4.2 Mw and Mw Distribution;107 10.4.3;4.4.3 Rheological Behavior;108 10.4.4;4.4.4 Surface Tension;109 10.4.5;4.4.5 Thermal Behavior;110 10.4.6;4.4.6 Biological Activity;111 10.5;4.5 Interactions with Cellulose;111 10.5.1;4.5.1 Interaction of Hemicelluloses with Celluloses in Production of Celluloses;112 10.5.2;4.5.2 Interaction of Hemicelluloses with Celluloses in Papermaking Process;114 10.5.3;4.5.3 Effect of Inter
action of Hemicelluloses with Celluloses on the Bioethanol Production ;115 10.5.4;4.5.4 The Assembly Characteristics of Hemicelluloses on Cellulose;116 10.6;4.6 Modification of Hemicelluloses and its Application;116 10.6.1;4.6.1 The Potential Modification of Hemicelluloses;116 10.6.2;4.6.2 Chemical Modification and its Application ;117 10.6.3;4.6.3 Straw Hemicelluloses and their Application ;128 10.7;4.7 Summary;129 10.8;References ;130 11;Chapter 5 Cellulose;142 11.1;5.1 Occurrence;142 11.2;5.2 Isolation ;143 11.2.1;5.2.1 Delignification and Alkali Extraction;143 11.2.2;5.2.2 Steam Explosion;145 11.2.3;5.2.3 Alkaline Peroxide Extraction;146 11.2.4;5.2.4 Organic Solvent Extraction;146 11.2.5;5.2.5 Other Isolation Methods;147 11.3;5.3 Structure and Crystalline Lattice of Cellulose I;149 11.3.1;5.3.1 Supermolecular Structure;149 11.3.2;5.3.2 Cellulose Lattice I;149 11.3.3;5.3.3 Conversion of Cellulose I to Cellulose II;153 11.4;5.4 Physico-Chemical Properties;154 11.4.1;5.4.1 Structural Properties;154 11.4.2;5.4.2 Dissolution of Cellulose;157 11.4.3;5.4.3 Regeneration of Cellulose;162 11.4.4;5.4.4 Hydrolysis of Cellulose;164 11.5;5.5 Chemical Modification and its Utilization ;165 11.5.1;5.5.1 Acetylation;166 11.5.2;5.5.2 Acylation with Other Linear Anhydrides or Chlorides ;168 11.5.3;5.5.3 Esterification with Cyclic Anhydrides;168 11.5.4;5.5.4 Carboxymethylation;169 11.5.5;5.5.5 Other Chemical Modification;172 11.5.6;5.6 Concluding Remarks ;173 11.6;References;173 12;Chapter 6 Lignin;180 12.1;6.1 Introduction;180 12.2;6.2 Monolignols, and Lignification in Grass Cell Walls ;181 12.2.1;6.2.1 Biosynthesis of Monolignols;181 12.2.2;6.2.2 Lignin Deposition and Topochemistry;182 12.2.3;6.2.3 Lignification Polymerization of Monolignols;184 12.3;6.3 Isolation and Purification of Lignins ;185 12.3.1;6.3.1 Milled Wood Lignin;186 12.3.2;6.3.2 Enzyme Lignin;188 12.3.3;6.3.3 Alkali Lignins;189 12.3.4;6.3.4 Organosolv Lignin;191 12.3.5;6.3.5 Purification of Lignins;193 12.4;6.4 Ana
lytical Methods for Lignin Characterization ;194 12.4.1;6.4.1 Thioacidolysis;194 12.4.2;6.4.2 DFRC Method;194 12.4.3;6.4.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy;196 12.5;6.5 Structural Characteristics of Straw Lignins;198 12.5.1;6.5.1 Ferulates in Grass Lignins;199 12.5.2;6.5.2 p-Coumarates in Grass Lignins;203 12.5.3;6.5.3 LigninCarbohydrate Complexes in Grasses;204 12.6;6.6 Utilization of Lignins;205 12.6.1;6.6.1 Wood Adhesives Made from Lignins;206 12.6.2;6.6.2 Biochemicals/Biofuel from Lignins;207 12.7;6.7 Concluding Remarks;208 12.8;References;209 13;Chapter 7 Chemical Modification of Straw as Novel Materials for Industries ;220 13.1;7.1 Chemical Modification of Cereal Straws as Natural Sorbents in Oil Spill Cleanup ;220 13.1.1;7.1.1 Hazard of Oil Spill;220 13.1.2;7.1.2 Methods for Controlling Oil Spills;220 13.1.3;7.1.3 Classification of Oil Sorbents;220 13.1.4;7.1.4 Principles of Sorbency;221 13.1.5;7.1.5 Influence of Sorptive Capacity;221 13.1.6;7.1.6 Chemical Modification of Cereal Straws as Oil Sorbents;222 13.1.7;7.1.7 Types of Catalysts in Chemical Modification;223 13.1.8;7.1.8 Agro-Based Sorbent Application;224 13.2;References ;227 14;Chapter 7.2 Modification of Cereal Straws as Natural Sorbents for Removing Metal Ions from Industrial Waste Water;230 14.1;7.2.1 Introduction;230 14.2;7.2.2 Mechanism of Metal Biosorption;231 14.3;7.2.3 Adsorption Models;231 14.4;7.2.4 Methods of Chemical Modification;232 14.4.1;7.2.4.1 The Methods of Direct Chemical Modification;233 14.4.2;7.2.4.2 Chemical Grafting Modification;234 14.5;7.2.5 Chemically Modified Straw;238 14.5.1;7.2.5.1 Sugarcane Bagasse;238 14.5.2;7.2.5.2 Rice Straw/Husks/Hulls;241 14.5.3;7.2.5.3 Wheat Straw/Wheat Bran;242 14.5.4;7.2.5.4 Corncobs;242 14.5.5;7.2.5.5 Soybean Straw/Hull;243 14.5.6;7.2.5.6 Other Straw/Hulls;244 14.6;7.2.6 Summary;244 14.7;References ;245 15;Chapter 7.3 Modification of Straw for Activated Carbon Preparation and Application for the Removal of Dyes from Aqueous Solutions ;250
15.1;7.3.1 Introduction;250 15.2;7.3.2 Technologies Available for Dye Removal ;250 15.2.1;7.3.2.1 Biological Treatments;251 15.2.2;7.3.2.2 Chemical Methods;251 15.2.3;7.3.2.3 Physical Methods;251 15.3;7.3.3 Dye Removal Using Commercial Activated Carbons;252 15.4;7.3.4 Dye Removal Using Agricultural Wastes or Byproducts ;253 15.5;7.3.5 Production of Acs from Agricultural Byproducts;255 15.5.1;7.3.5.1 Physical Activation;256 15.5.2;7.3.5.2 Chemical Activation;256 15.5.3;7.3.5.3 Dye Removal Using ACs from Agricultural Byproducts;256 15.6;7.3.6 Summary;258 15.7;References;259 16;Chapter 7.4 Liquefaction and Gasification of Cereal Straws;264 16.1;7.4.1 Hydrothermal Liquefaction;264 16.2;7.4.2 Solvolytic Liquefaction;267 16.3;7.4.3 Thermal Gasification;270 16.4;7.4.4 Hydrothermal Gasification;272 16.5;References;274 17;Chapter 7.5 Biorefinery Straw for Bioethanol;278 17.1;7.5.1 Introduction;278 17.2;7.5.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass Recalcitrance;279 17.3;7.5.3 Biorefinery Straw For Bioethanol Production;281 17.3.1;7.5.3.1 Acid Hydrolysis;281 17.3.2;7.5.3.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis;283 17.4;7.5.4 Summary;293 17.5;References;294 18;Index ;300