Brain and Music

A comprehensive survey of the latest neuroscientific research into the effects of music on the brain
* Covers a variety of topics fundamental for music perception, including musical syntax, musical semantics, music and action, music and emotion
* Includes general introductory chapters to engage a broad readership, as well as a wealth of detailed research material for experts
* Offers the most empirical (and most systematic) work on the topics of neural correlates of musical syntax and musical semantics
* Integrates research from different domains (such as music, language, action and emotion both theoretically and empirically, to create a comprehensive theory of music psychology

Preface ix Part I Introductory Chapters 1
1 Ear and Hearing 3
1. 1 The ear 3
1. 2 Auditory brainstem and thalamus 6
1. 3 Place and time information 8
1. 4 Beats, roughness, consonance and dissonance 9
1. 5 Acoustical equivalency of timbre and phoneme 11
1. 6 Auditory cortex 12
2 Music-theoretical Background 17
2. 1 How major keys are related 17
2. 2 The basic in-key functions in major 20
2. 3 Chord inversions and Neapolitan sixth chords 21
2. 4 Secondary dominants and double dominants 21
3 Perception of Pitch and Harmony 23
3. 1 Context-dependent representation of pitch 23
3. 2 The representation of key-relatedness 26
3. 3 The developing and changing sense of key 29
3. 4 The representation of chord-functions 30
3. 5 Hierarchy of harmonic stability 31
3. 6 Musical expectancies 35
3. 7 Chord sequence paradigms 36
4 From Electric Brain Activity to ERPs and ERFs 40
4. 1 Electro-encephalography (EEG) 43
4. 1. 1 The 10-20 system 43
4. 1. 2 Referencing 45
4. 2 Obtaining event-related brain potentials (ERPs) 45
4. 3 Magnetoencephalography (MEG) 48
4. 3. 1 Forward solution and inverse problem 49
4. 3. 2 Comparison between MEG and EEG 49
5 ERP Components 51
5. 1 Auditory P1, N1, P2 51
5. 2 Frequency-following response (FFR) 53
5. 3 Mismatch negativity 54
5. 3. 1 MMN in neonates 57
5. 3. 2 MMN and music 57
5. 4 N2b and P300 59
5. 5 ERP-correlates of language processing 59
5. 5. 1 Semantic processes: N400 60
5. 5. 2 Syntactic processes: (E)LAN and P600 63
5. 5. 3 Prosodic processes: Closure Positive Shift 67
6 A Brief Historical Account of ERP Studies of Music Processing 70
6. 1 The beginnings: Studies with melodic stimuli 70
6. 2 Studies with chords 74
6. 3 MMN studies 75
6. 4 Processing of musical meaning 76
6. 5 Processing of musical phrase boundaries 77
6. 6 Music and action 77
7 Functional Neuroimaging Methods: fMRI and PET 79
7. 1 Analysis of fMRI data 81
7. 2 Sparse temporal sampling in fMRI 84
7. 3 Interleaved silent steady state fMRI 85
7. 4 'Activation' vs. 'activity change' 85
Part II Towards a New Theory of Music Psychology 87
8 Music Perception: A Generative Framework 89
9 Musical Syntax 98
9. 1 What is musical syntax? 98
9. 2 Cognitive processes 102
9. 3 The early right anterior negativity (ERAN) 109
9. 3. 1 The problem of confounding acoustics and possible solutions 113
9. 3. 2 Effects of task-relevance 120
9. 3. 3 Polyphonic stimuli 121
9. 3. 4 Latency of the ERAN 127
9. 3. 5 Melodies 127
9. 3. 6 Lateralization of the ERAN 129
9. 4 Neuroanatomical correlates 131
9. 5 Processing of acoustic vs. music-syntactic irregularities 133
9. 6 Interactions between music- and language-syntactic processing 138
9. 6. 1 The Syntactic Equivalence Hypothesis 145
9. 7 Attention and automaticity 147
9. 8 Effects of musical training 149
9. 9 Development 151
10 Musical Semantics 156
10. 1 What is musical semantics? 156
10. 2 Extra-musical meaning 158
10. 2. 1 Iconic musical meaning 158
10. 2. 2 Indexical musical meaning 159
Excursion: Decoding of intentions during musinc listening 161
10. 2. 3 Symbolic musical meaning 162
10. 3 Extra-musical meaning and the N400 163
10. 4 Intra-musical meaning 170
Excursion: Posterior temporal cortex and processing of meaning 166
10. 4. 1 Intra-musical meaning and the N5 171
10. 5 Musicogenic meaning 177
10. 5. 1 Physical 177
10. 5. 2 Emotional 179
10. 5. 3 Personal 180
10. 6 Musical semantics 181
10. 6. 1 Neural correlates 181
10. 6. 2 Propositional semantics 182
10. 6. 3 Communication vs. expression 182
10. 6. 4 Meaning emerging from large-scale relations 183
10. 6. 5 Further theoretical accounts 184
11 Music and Action 186
11. 1 Perception-action mediation 186
11. 2 ERP correlates of music production 189
12 Emotion 203
12. 1 What are 'musical emotions'? 204
12. 2 Emotional responses to music - underlying mechanisms 207
12. 3 From social contact to spirituality - The Seven Cs 208
12. 4 Emotional responses to music - underlying principles 212
12. 5 Musical expectancies and emotional responses 216
12. 5. 1 The tension-arch 218
12. 6 Limbic and paralimbic correlates of music-evoked emotions 219
12. 6. 1 Major-minor and happy-sad music 225
12. 6. 2 Music-evoked dopaminergic neural activity 226
12. 6. 3 Music and the hippocampus 227
12. 6. 4 Parahippocampal gyrus 231
12. 6. 5 A network comprising hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus, and temporal poles 232
12. 6. 6 Effects of music on insular and anterior cingulate cortex activity 232
12. 7 Electrophysiological effects of music-evoked emotions 233
12. 8 Time course of emotion 234
12. 9 Salutary effects of music making 235
13 Concluding Remarks and Summary 241
13. 1 Music and language 241
13. 2 The music-language continuum 244
13. 3 Summary of the theory 249
13. 4 Summary of open questions 258
References 267
Index 303