Morphology and Function in MRI

1 The Physical Basis of Magnetic Resonance Imaging.- 1.1 The Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Effect.- 1.1.1 Boltzmann Distribution.- 1.1.2 Magnetic Susceptibility.- 1.1.3 The Resonance Phenomenon.- 1.2 Diffusion.- 1.3 Relaxation Mechanisms.- 1.3.1 T1 and T2 Relaxation.- 1.3.2 Interactions Producing Relaxation H.- 1.3.3 Paramagnetic Relaxation.- 1.3.4 Chemical Shift.- 1.4 Pulse Sequences.- 1.4.1 Free Induction Decay.- 1.4.2 Inversion Recovery.- 1.4.3 Spin Echo.- 1.4.4 Diffusion-Sensitive Pulse Sequences.- 1.4.5 A Mathematical Tool: The Fourier Transformation.- 1.4.6 Flow and Spin Phase Graphing.- 1.4.7 Chemical Shift Sequences.- 1.4.8 Gradient Echo Sequences.- 1.4.9 Gradient Echo Sequences for Measuring Flow.- 1.5 Magnetic Resonance Imaging.- 1.5.1 Slice Selection.- 1.5.2 Frequency Encoding.- 1.5.3 Phase Encoding.- 1.5.4 Multislice Imaging.- 1.5.5 Chemical Shift Artifacts and Chemical Shift Imaging.- References.- 2 Functional Aspects of the Cardiovascular System.- 2.1 Motion in the Cardiovascular System.- 2.1.1 Motion of Cardiac Walls and Valves.- 2.1.2 Motion of the Great Vessels.- 2.2 Flow.- 2.2.1 Shear Forces.- 2.2.2 Laminar and Turbulent Flow, the Reynolds Number.- 2.3 Hemodynamics.- 2.3.1 Flow in Veins and Arteries.- 2.3.2 Flow in the Cardiac Chambers.- 2.3.3 Microcirculation.- References.- 3 The Effects of Motion and Flow on Magnetic Resonance Imaging.- 3.1 Spin-Phase Phenomena.- 3.1.1 Spin-Phase Phenomena in Coherent Intravoxel Motion.- 3.1.2 Spin-Phase Phenomena in Incoherent Intravoxel Motion: Flow in Large Vessels and Intravascular Signal Loss.- 3.1.3 Spin-Phase Phenomena in Intravoxel Incoherent Motion: Flow in Small Vessels, Tissue Perfusion and Diffusion.- 3.1.4 Flow Measurements Using Spin-Phase Phenomena.- 3.1.5 Spin-Phase Effects: Summary.- 3.2 Slice Transition or "Time-of-Flight" Phenomena.- 3.2.1 High-Velocity Signal Loss.- 3.2.2 Entry Slice Phenomena.- 3.2.3 Flow Measurements Using Time-of-Flight Effects.- 3.3 MR Angiography.- 3.4 Pulsations of the Cerebrospinal Fluid Induced by Cardiac Motion.- 3.5 Image Artifacts Due to Physiologic Motion.- 3.5.1 "Ghost" Artifacts.- 3.5.2 Artifact Suppression Techniques.- 3.5.3 Spatial Misregistration.- 3.6 The Recognition of Flow Phenomena in Clinical Practice.- References.- 4 Cardiac Morphology and Function in Magnetic Resonance Imaging.- 4.1 Special Imaging Techniques in the Cardiovascular System and Cardiovascular Imaging Strategy.- 4.1.1 ECG Triggering in MRI.- 4.1.2 Angulation of Sections in Cardiac Imaging.- 4.1.3 Slice Ordering.- 4.1.4 Imaging Protocols.- 4.2 Normal Cardiac Morphology and Function in MRI.- 4.2.1 Cardiac Walls, Wall Thickness and Wall Motion.- 4.2.2 Chamber Volumetry.- 4.2.3 Valvular Motion.- 4.2.4 Coronary Arteries.- 4.2.5 Pericardium.- 4.2.6 Normal Appearance of the Intracavitary Blood Pool.- 4.3 Pathologic Cardiac Morphology and Function in MRI.- 4.3.1 Congenital Abnormalities.- 4.3.2 Coronary Artery Disease.- 4.3.3 Other Cardiomyopathies.- 4.3.4 Valvular Disease.- 4.3.5 Other Acquired Cardiac Disease.- 4.3.6 Pericardial Disease.- 4.3.7 Summary.- References.- 5 Vascular Morphology and Function in Magnetic Resonance Imaging.- 5.1 Normal Vascular Morphology and Function in MRI.- 5.1.1 Normal Arterial Anatomy and Arterial Flow Phenomena.- 5.1.2 Normal Venous Anatomy and Venous Flow Phenomena.- 5.2 Arterial Pathology.- 5.2.1 Congenital Malformations.- 5.2.2 Aneurysmatic Disease.- 5.2.3 Arterial Stenoses and Thromboses.- 5.3 Venous Pathology.- 5.3.1 Venous Collateral Circulation.- 5.3.2 Congenital Malformations.- 5.3.3 Venous Thrombosis, Stenosis, and Obstruction.- 5.3.4 Diseases of the Portosplenic Vessels.- 5.4 Arteriovenous Malformations and Fistulas.- 5.5 Summary.- References.- 6 Renal Morphology and Function in Magnetic Resonance Imaging.- 6.1 Renal Anatomy and Physiology Pertinent to MRI.- 6.1.1 Renal Morphology.- 6.1.2 Renal Physiology.- 6.2 Technical Considerations in Renal MRI.- 6.2.1 Spin-Echo Imaging of the Kidneys.- 6.2.2 Gradient Echo Imaging of the Kidneys.- 6.2.3 Dynamic Gradient Echo Imaging Using Contrast Agents.- 6.3 Normal Morphology and Function of the Kidneys in MRI.- 6.3.1 Normal Renal Morphology in MRI.- 6.3.2 Normal Renal Function Studies with MRI.- 6.4 Pathologic Morphology and Function of the Kidneys in MRI.- 6.4.1 Renal Obstruction.- 6.4.2 Infectious and Noninfectious Renal Parenchymal Disease.- 6.4.3 Perirenal Fluid Collections.- 6.4.4 Cystic Renal Disease.- 6.4.5 Neoplasms.- 6.4.6 Trauma, Including Extracorporeal Shock-Wave Lithotripsy.- 6.4.7 Renal Transplants.- 6.4.8 Summary.- References.- Appendices.- Appendix A: Taylor Series Expansions.- Appendix B: Vector Manipulations.- Appendix C: More About the Fourier Transformation.- Appendix D: Phase Calculations.- Abbreviations.